In this chapter, you will learn
- —Understand the characteristics of tribal societies and how they differed from caste-based societies
- —Learn about different tribes across regions of India and their livelihoods
- —Study nomadic groups, especially the Banjaras, and their role in trade and transportation
- —Examine how society changed with the emergence of new castes and hierarchies
- —Analyze the rise and administration of the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga
- —Study the Ahom state in Assam, its administration, military strength, and cultural contributions
- —Understand how tribes interacted with and were absorbed into caste-based society
Tribal Societies in Medieval India
In medieval India, many communities did not follow the social rules prescribed in Brahmanical texts. These communities, known as tribes, had their own distinct way of life, customs, and social organisation.
Key Characteristics of Tribal Societies:
- No Caste Division: Tribes did not follow the caste system or Brahmanical rules of social hierarchy
- Kinship Bonds: Members were united by kinship (family) bonds rather than caste or occupation
- Livelihood: Agriculture, hunting, gathering forest produce, herding animals, and shifting cultivation
- Collective Ownership: Land and pastures were shared collectively and divided according to tribal customs and rules
- Nomadic Lifestyle: Some tribes were nomadic, moving seasonally in search of resources like pastures and water
Examples of Tribes by Region:
- North-West India: Khokhars, Gakkhars, Langahs, Arghuns, Balochis
- Western Himalayas: Gaddis (shepherd tribe known for herding)
- North-East India: Nagas, Ahoms, and many other hill tribes
- Bihar and Jharkhand: Cheros, Mundas, Santals
- Maharashtra and Karnataka: Kolis, Berads
- Western and Central India: Bhils (one of the largest tribal groups)
- Central India: Gonds (a major tribe that built powerful kingdoms)
Exam Tip: Remember the key differences between tribes and caste-based society: tribes had no caste divisions, were united by kinship bonds, practiced collective ownership, and did not follow Brahmanical rules. Know at least 3-4 examples of tribes from different regions.
Exam Tip
Tribes did not follow Brahmanical caste rules, were united by kinship bonds, and practised collective land ownership. Know regional examples: Khokhars/Gakkhars (NW), Nagas/Ahoms (NE), Gonds (Central), Bhils (Western), Mundas/Santals (Bihar/Jharkhand).
Common Mistake
Students sometimes assume all tribes were primitive or backward. In reality, many tribes like the Gonds and Ahoms built powerful kingdoms with organised administration and large armies.
Nomads and Mobile People
Nomadic communities moved from place to place in search of livelihood. They played a vital role in connecting different parts of India through trade and cultural exchange.
Nomadic Pastoralists:
- Moved with their herds of animals across long distances in search of pastures
- Exchanged wool, ghee, and milk products for grain, cloth, and utensils with settled communities
- Their seasonal movement followed well-established routes based on availability of pastures
The Banjaras - Most Famous Trader-Nomads:
- Caravans: Banjara caravans were called tandas
- Trade Role: They transported food grains and other goods for Sultan Alauddin Khalji and the Mughal armies
- Peter Mundy's Account: The 17th-century English traveller Peter Mundy described Banjaras as large travelling groups with families and oxen carrying goods across vast distances
- Their movement helped in transporting essential supplies, especially during military campaigns
Other Mobile Groups:
- Pastoralists: Herders who moved with livestock seasonally
- Petty Pedlars and Mendicants: Travelling traders and religious wanderers
- Entertainers: Musicians, performers, and storytellers who moved between villages and towns
Key Point: Nomadic groups were not just wanderers. They played an important economic role by transporting goods, connecting markets, and providing services that settled communities could not.
Exam Tip: The Banjaras are the most frequently asked nomadic group. Remember: their caravans were called tandas, they worked for Alauddin Khalji and Mughal armies, and Peter Mundy described them in the 17th century.
Exam Tip
Banjaras are the most asked nomadic group. Key facts: caravans = tandas, transported goods for Alauddin Khalji and Mughals, described by Peter Mundy (17th-century English traveller) as large groups with families and oxen.
Common Mistake
Students often confuse nomadic pastoralists with Banjaras. Pastoralists moved with animals for grazing, while Banjaras were trader-nomads who transported goods in caravans called tandas.
Changing Society: New Castes and Hierarchies
Medieval Indian society was not static. Economic growth and new professions led to significant social changes, including the emergence of new castes and the absorption of tribes into the caste system.
Emergence of New Jatis (Sub-Castes):
- With economic growth, new skills and professions emerged in society
- New jatis (sub-castes) appeared among Brahmanas as well as artisan groups like smiths, carpenters, and masons
- These jatis were based on occupation rather than birth alone
- Occupation became more important than birth in defining social status
Absorption of Tribes into Caste Society:
- Some tribes gradually became part of the caste-based social system
- The tribal elite (chiefs and leaders) were absorbed as Kshatriyas or Rajputs in the caste hierarchy
- Other tribal members took lower ranks in the social order
- This process was gradual and varied across different regions
Adoption of Islam:
- In some regions like Punjab and Sind, many tribes adopted Islam
- By converting to Islam, they rejected the caste system entirely
- This provided an alternative social structure for communities that did not fit into the Brahmanical hierarchy
Exam Tip: The interaction between tribes and caste-based society was a two-way process. Tribes could be absorbed into caste society (elite as Kshatriyas, others at lower ranks) or reject it entirely by adopting Islam. New jatis also formed based on occupation.
Exam Tip
Tribal absorption into caste worked differently for different groups: elite became Kshatriyas/Rajputs, others got lower ranks. In Punjab and Sind, tribes adopted Islam to reject caste. New jatis formed around occupations like smiths, carpenters, masons.
Common Mistake
Students sometimes think all tribes were absorbed into the caste system. Many tribes maintained their independence and distinct identity, while others chose Islam as an alternative to the caste hierarchy.
The Gonds: A Powerful Tribal Kingdom
The Gonds were one of the largest and most powerful tribal groups in central India. They built impressive kingdoms with organised administration.
Location and Livelihood:
- Lived in the forested region called Gondwana (parts of modern Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh)
- Practised shifting cultivation (clearing forest patches, farming for a few years, then moving to new areas)
- Divided into many clans, each under a raja (chief)
The Kingdom of Garha Katanga:
- The largest Gond kingdom, mentioned in Ain-i Akbari (Abul Fazl's chronicle of Akbar's reign)
- Had about 70,000 villages under its control
- Administrative System: Garh (fort/district) was divided into Chaurasi (group of 84 villages), which was further divided into Barhot (group of 12 villages)
Key Rulers:
- Aman Das: A powerful ruler who took the title Sangram Shah
- Dalpat Shah: Son of Aman Das; married Rani Durgawati, a Chandel Rajput princess
- Rani Durgawati: After Dalpat's death, she became regent and ruled bravely
Rani Durgawati vs the Mughals:
- In 1565, the Mughal general Asaf Khan attacked Garha Katanga
- Rani Durgawati fought bravely but was defeated and died in battle rather than surrender
- After the defeat, part of the kingdom was annexed by the Mughals
- The remaining territory was given to Chandra Shah, a Gond chief
- Later, Gond kingdoms further weakened under Bundelas and Marathas
Social Changes in Gond Society:
- As the kingdom grew, Gond society became more hierarchical
- Brahmanas received land grants and gained influence in Gond courts
- The originally egalitarian tribal structure gave way to a more stratified social order
Exam Tip: Garha Katanga with 70,000 villages is a frequently tested fact. Remember the administrative system: Garh to Chaurasi (84 villages) to Barhot (12 villages). Rani Durgawati's brave resistance against Asaf Khan in 1565 is also commonly asked.
Exam Tip
Key facts about Gonds: Gondwana region, shifting cultivation, Garha Katanga had 70,000 villages (Ain-i Akbari). Administrative divisions: Garh > Chaurasi (84 villages) > Barhot (12 villages). Rani Durgawati fought Asaf Khan (1565) and died in battle.
Common Mistake
Students often confuse Garha Katanga with Gondwana. Gondwana is the larger region where Gonds lived; Garha Katanga was one specific powerful Gond kingdom within that region with 70,000 villages.
The Ahoms: From Migration to a Powerful State
The Ahoms migrated from Myanmar and built one of the most powerful tribal kingdoms in India's north-east, ruling the Brahmaputra valley of Assam for several centuries.
Origin and Expansion:
- Migrated from Myanmar to Assam (Brahmaputra valley) in the 13th century
- Defeated local landlords called bhuiyans and established their rule
- Annexed the Chhutiyas (1523) and Koch-Hajo (1581) kingdoms to expand their territory
Military Strength:
- Built a powerful state with an efficient army
- Used gunpowder and cannons in warfare
- Fought the Mughals - Mir Jumla invaded in 1662, temporarily defeating the Ahoms
- However, the Ahoms regained their independence soon after Mir Jumla's withdrawal
Administration and Labour System:
- The state depended on forced labour called paiks
- Each village provided paiks in rotation for public works (building roads, bridges, dams) or military service
- This system ensured a steady supply of labour for state projects without maintaining a permanent workforce
Ahom Society and Culture:
- Divided into clans called khels
- Practised community-based land ownership (land belonged to the community, not individuals)
- Later influenced by Hinduism and Brahmanas, especially during the reign of King Sib Singh (1714-1744)
- Maintained tribal traditions alongside Hindu customs, creating a unique cultural blend
- Encouraged education, literature, and theatre
- Wrote Buranjis - historical chronicles written in the Ahom and Assamese languages, which are valuable historical sources
Key Point: The Ahoms are a remarkable example of how a tribal group could build a powerful, well-organised state. They successfully resisted the mighty Mughals and maintained their independence while also adapting to new cultural influences.
Exam Tip: Important Ahom facts: migrated from Myanmar (13th century), paiks (forced labour system), khels (clans), Buranjis (historical chronicles), fought Mughals (Mir Jumla, 1662) and regained independence. King Sib Singh brought Hindu influence.
Exam Tip
Ahom key facts: migrated from Myanmar to Assam (13th century), paiks = forced labour system, khels = clans, Buranjis = historical chronicles. Defeated Mughals after Mir Jumla's invasion (1662). King Sib Singh (1714-1744) brought Hindu-Brahmana influence.
Common Mistake
Students confuse paiks with slaves. Paiks were not slaves - they were villagers who provided forced labour to the state in rotation for public works or military service. It was a labour tax system, not slavery.