In this chapter, you will learn
- —Understand how historical maps changed over time and what they reveal about the mapmaker's world
- —Learn how the meaning of terms like 'Hindustan' and 'foreigner' changed across centuries
- —Identify the sources historians use and the challenges of studying medieval manuscripts
- —Analyse the emergence of new social and political groups such as Rajputs and jatis
- —Understand the formation of regions and the nature of large empires during this period
- —Examine religious developments including changes in Hinduism, the rise of Bhakti, and the arrival of Islam
- —Critically evaluate how historians periodise Indian history and why British periodisation is debated
Understanding Historical Maps
Maps are among the most important sources for understanding how people saw the world in the past. Two maps from different centuries reveal dramatic changes in knowledge and technology.
Al-Idrisi's Map (1154 CE):
- Created by: Arab geographer Al-Idrisi for the King of Sicily
- Key Feature: South India is shown at the top and Sri Lanka is at the top of the map because Al-Idrisi placed south on top, unlike modern maps
- Places shown: India appears as part of a larger landmass; the Indian Ocean and Arabia are clearly marked
- Limitation: The map lacks precise boundaries and accurate distances; coastlines are approximate
French Cartographer's Map (1720s):
- Created by: A French cartographer using improved instruments and navigation data
- Key Feature: Much more accurate in terms of coastlines, distances, and compass directions; north is at the top
- Places shown: Coastal areas of India are accurately mapped due to European maritime trade expansion
- Improvement: Use of scientific instruments and information gathered by European sailors and traders
Why Maps Changed:
- Advances in science and technology (compass, telescope, better ships)
- Increased trade and exploration leading to more geographical knowledge
- European maritime expansion from the 15th century onwards
- Different cultural perspectives influenced how maps were drawn
Exam Tip: When comparing the two maps, always mention: (1) Al-Idrisi placed south on top, (2) the French map is more accurate due to scientific advances, and (3) maps reflect the knowledge and perspective of the time they were made.
Exam Tip
Al-Idrisi's map (1154) has south on top and is less accurate. The French map (1720s) has north on top and uses scientific instruments. Maps reflect the knowledge and cultural perspective of their time.
Common Mistake
Students often think Al-Idrisi's map is 'wrong' because south is on top. It is not wrong -- it simply follows a different convention. There was no universal rule about placing north on top.
Changing Terminologies: Hindustan and Foreigner
The meaning of words and terms changed dramatically over the centuries. Two important examples are the terms 'Hindustan' and 'foreigner'.
The Term 'Hindustan':
- 13th Century (Minhaj-i-Siraj): Used for the lands that were part of the dominions of the Delhi Sultan -- mainly Punjab, Haryana, and the lands between the Ganga and Yamuna. It did not include South India
- 14th Century (Babur): Used the term to describe the geography, fauna, and culture of the inhabitants of the subcontinent
- Today: 'Hindustan' is used as a name for the entire nation of India -- a meaning very different from what it meant in the 13th century
The Term 'Foreigner':
- Medieval Period: The term 'foreigner' was used for any stranger who was not part of the same society or culture, not necessarily someone from another country
- Persian term 'pardesi': Meant a person who did not belong to a particular village or city -- an outsider from a different region of the same land
- Today: 'Foreigner' means someone from a different country entirely
Why Terminologies Changed:
- Political boundaries shifted as new kingdoms and empires rose and fell
- Cultural interactions between diverse groups created new identities
- The arrival of new rulers (Turks, Mughals, British) changed the meaning of political terms
- Modern nation-state concept was absent in the medieval period
Key Point: Historical terms do not carry the same meaning across centuries. Always understand the context in which a term was used before interpreting it.
Exam Tip
Remember three meanings of 'Hindustan': Minhaj-i-Siraj (13th c.) = areas of Delhi Sultanate; Babur (16th c.) = geography and culture of the subcontinent; Today = entire country India. 'Foreigner' earlier meant outsider from another region, not another country.
Common Mistake
Students assume 'Hindustan' always meant the whole of India. In the 13th century, it referred only to the areas around Punjab and the Ganga-Yamuna region under the Delhi Sultan.
Historians and Their Sources
Historians rely on a variety of sources to understand the past. For the period between 700 and 1750 CE, these sources include chronicles, inscriptions, coins, architecture, and most importantly, manuscripts.
Manuscripts:
- Definition: Handwritten records on palm leaves or handmade paper
- Languages: Written in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and various regional languages
- Content: Historical events, religious texts, literary works, administrative records, scientific treatises
- Preservation: Collected by wealthy people, rulers, monasteries, and temples; kept in libraries and archives
Challenges with Manuscripts:
- Copying errors: Manuscripts were copied by hand by scribes. Small differences crept in each time, so no two copies are exactly the same
- Deterioration: Being made of organic materials (palm leaf, paper), manuscripts could decay over time
- Interpretation: Different historians could interpret the same text differently depending on their perspective
- Bias: Authors often wrote to please their patrons (rulers), so accounts may not be entirely objective
The Importance of Paper:
- Paper gradually became available from the 14th century onwards, replacing palm leaves
- It was cheaper and easier to produce, making it possible for more people to write
- Increased availability of paper led to a larger number of chronicles, accounts, and literary works
- This means historians have more sources from the 14th century onwards compared to earlier periods
Other Sources Used by Historians:
- Inscriptions: Carved on stone or metal; more durable but expensive to produce
- Coins: Reveal names of rulers, economic conditions, and trade networks
- Architecture: Temples, mosques, forts reveal the culture and technology of the time
- Travelogues: Accounts of foreign travellers like Ibn Battuta and Marco Polo
Exam Tip: When asked about sources, always mention both the type (manuscripts, inscriptions, coins) and the challenges (copying errors, bias, deterioration). The spread of paper from the 14th century is a key point.
Exam Tip
Key points about manuscripts: handwritten on palm leaves or paper, copied by scribes with small errors, no two copies are identical. Paper became widely available from the 14th century, increasing the number of written records.
Common Mistake
Students often forget that manuscripts were copied by hand and therefore contain variations. This does not make them unreliable -- it means historians must compare multiple copies to establish the original text.
New Social and Political Groups
The period between 700 and 1750 CE saw the emergence of many new social and political groups that shaped the subcontinent's history.
Rajputs:
- Origin: The term 'Rajput' (son of a king) came into use in this period to designate a group of warriors who claimed Kshatriya status
- Rise: They established kingdoms across Rajasthan, parts of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and other regions
- Identity: Rajputs were not a single caste but included people from diverse backgrounds who adopted Rajput identity through military service and marriage alliances
- Political role: They became important political players, ruling many regional kingdoms
Jatis (Sub-castes):
- Definition: Jatis were sub-groups within the four varnas (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) based on occupation and region
- Growth: Many new jatis emerged as groups of people took up new occupations or migrated to new regions
- Organisation: Jatis had their own rules and regulations, which were enforced by a jati panchayat (council of elders)
- Social position: The social position of a jati could change over time depending on the economic and political power its members gained
- Important feature: Jatis, rather than the four varnas, became the basis of social organisation in this period
Forest Dwellers (Tribal Groups):
- Many tribal and forest-dwelling communities lived in the forests and hills across the subcontinent
- With the clearing of forests for agriculture, some tribal groups were forced to shift or adapt
- Some forest-dwelling groups became settled agriculturalists over time
- Others maintained their distinct identity and resisted incorporation into caste society
Other Important Groups:
- Merchants and Traders: Grew in importance as trade expanded; formed guilds and organisations
- Priests and Scholars: Brahmanas continued to hold social prestige but new learned groups also emerged
- Artisans: Weavers, potters, blacksmiths organised themselves into jatis and guilds
Exam Tip: Remember that Rajputs were not a single caste -- they included people from different backgrounds. Jatis, not varnas, became the real basis of social organisation. These are frequently tested points.
Exam Tip
Rajputs included people from diverse backgrounds, not just one caste. Jatis (sub-castes) with their own rules and panchayats became the actual basis of social organisation, more important than the four-varna system.
Common Mistake
Students often assume the caste system was rigid and unchanging. In reality, new jatis emerged, old ones changed positions, and groups like Rajputs were formed from diverse origins through military service and political alliances.
Regions and Empires
Between 700 and 1750 CE, the political map of the Indian subcontinent was constantly changing. Different regions developed their own distinct identities while large empires tried to bring them under a single authority.
Formation of Regions:
- Regions like Bengal, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra developed distinct languages, food, dress, and cultural practices
- Regional identities were shaped by geography, language, and the ruling dynasties
- The Chola dynasty shaped Tamil identity; the Rajputs shaped Rajasthani identity
- Even when regions were part of larger empires, they retained their local culture and traditions
Large Empires During This Period:
- Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526): A succession of five dynasties of Turkic and Afghan origin ruled from Delhi; controlled large parts of northern India
- Mughal Empire (1526-1707): Founded by Babur; reached its peak under Akbar; controlled most of the subcontinent
- Chola Empire (9th-13th century): Powerful South Indian empire that controlled Tamil Nadu, parts of Southeast Asia, and Sri Lanka
- Vijayanagara Empire (1336-1646): Major South Indian empire that served as a bulwark against northern invasions
Nature of These Empires:
- They were not modern nation-states with fixed borders; boundaries shifted with military campaigns
- Rulers relied on local chieftains, zamindars, and governors to administer different regions
- Communication and transport were slow, so central control was often weak in distant areas
- Different regions within the same empire could have different laws, taxes, and customs
Key Features of Regional Kingdoms:
- Patron of local language and literature (e.g., Cholas and Tamil, Rajputs and Rajasthani)
- Local architectural styles (e.g., Dravidian temple architecture, Rajput palace architecture)
- Distinct military traditions and administrative systems
- Trade networks connected regions to each other and to the wider world
Key Point: Regions and empires coexisted. Even large empires like the Mughals could not erase regional identities. Regions shaped the culture, language, and traditions of people, while empires provided broader political and economic frameworks.
Exam Tip
Regions formed around language, culture, and geography. Large empires (Delhi Sultanate, Mughals, Cholas) controlled vast areas but could not erase regional identities. Empires were not modern nation-states -- they had shifting boundaries and relied on local rulers.
Common Mistake
Students sometimes think empires controlled all aspects of life in every region. In reality, empires often let local chieftains manage day-to-day affairs. Regions retained their distinct culture even within large empires.
Religious Developments: Hinduism, Bhakti, and Islam
The period 700-1750 CE witnessed profound changes in religious life across the subcontinent. Major developments included the transformation of Hinduism, the rise of the Bhakti movement, and the arrival and spread of Islam.
Changes in Hinduism:
- Major shift: Hinduism as we know it today is very different from the religion of the Vedic period. Important changes occurred during this period
- New deities: Worship of Vishnu, Shiva, and their incarnations became more prominent
- Temple worship: Construction of elaborate temples became a central feature of Hindu religious practice
- Brahmanas: The importance of Brahmanas as priests and scholars continued, but was also challenged by new religious movements
- Key point: The term 'Hindu' originally referred to people living beyond the Indus River and was used by outsiders. It did not originally refer to a specific religion
The Bhakti Movement:
- Core idea: Personal devotion (bhakti) to God is the simplest path to salvation; anyone, regardless of caste or status, can reach God through sincere devotion
- Challenge to hierarchy: Bhakti saints questioned caste distinctions and rituals controlled by Brahmanas
- Important saints: Kabir (rejected both Hindu and Muslim orthodoxy), Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism), Mirabai (devotion to Krishna), Ramanuja (devotion to Vishnu)
- Impact: Made religion accessible to ordinary people, promoted equality, used local languages instead of Sanskrit
- Literary contribution: Bhakti saints composed poetry and songs in regional languages, enriching local literature
Arrival and Spread of Islam:
- Arrival: Arab traders brought Islam to India's western coast (7th-8th century); later, Turkic invasions (11th-12th century) established Muslim rule in northern India
- Spread: Islam spread through conquest, trade, migration of Sufi saints and scholars, and conversion
- Sufism: Sufi saints like Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer) emphasised love, devotion, and compassion; their message attracted many followers from all communities
- Diversity: Muslims were not a monolithic community -- they belonged to different sects, ethnic groups, and social classes
- Cultural interaction: Hinduism and Islam influenced each other, leading to shared cultural practices in music, architecture, food, and language (e.g., Urdu)
Significance of Religious Developments:
- Religion was not separate from politics; rulers patronised temples, mosques, and religious scholars
- Religious diversity increased -- India became home to Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, Christians, and Jews
- Conflicts existed but so did cooperation and cultural exchange between communities
Exam Tip: The word 'Hindu' originally did not refer to a religion but to people living beyond the Indus River. Bhakti movement challenged caste hierarchy. Islam spread through trade, Sufi saints, and political conquest. Remember key Bhakti saints and their contributions.
Exam Tip
Key facts: 'Hindu' originally meant people beyond the Indus, not a specific religion. Bhakti movement promoted equality and devotion over ritual. Islam spread through trade, Sufism, and political conquest. Know names of key Bhakti saints (Kabir, Guru Nanak, Mirabai).
Common Mistake
Students often think Hinduism has always been the same. In fact, it changed significantly -- new gods became prominent, temple worship grew, and the Bhakti movement challenged orthodox practices. Similarly, Islam in India was diverse, not uniform.
Thinking About Time and Historical Periods
Historians divide history into periods to make the study of the past easier. However, the way we periodise history is not neutral -- it reflects certain assumptions and biases.
British Periodisation of Indian History:
- The British divided Indian history into three periods:
- Hindu Period: Ancient India (before Muslim rule)
- Muslim Period: Medieval India (during Muslim rule)
- British Period: Modern India (during British rule)
- This classification was introduced by James Mill in his book 'A History of British India' (1817)
Problems with British Periodisation:
- Religion-based: Dividing history based on the religion of rulers is misleading because rulers did not represent entire populations
- Over-simplification: It ignores the diverse communities that existed in every period -- Hindus, Muslims, Buddhists, Jains, and others lived together in all periods
- British bias: The term 'Modern' for the British period implied that British rule brought progress, which is a colonial and biased view
- Ignores social changes: This periodisation focuses only on rulers and ignores economic, social, and cultural changes that occurred across religious lines
- Incorrect labels: Many rulers called 'Muslim' patronised Hindu scholars and temples, and many 'Hindu' rulers employed Muslim administrators
Alternative Approach -- Periodisation by Economic and Social Changes:
- Historians today prefer to divide history based on economic, social, and technological changes rather than religion of rulers
- Early Period: Characterised by agriculture, trade, and growth of towns
- Medieval Period: Growth of new technologies, trade networks, regional kingdoms, and cultural developments
- Colonial Period: Domination by European colonial powers, economic exploitation, and modern institutions
- This approach is more objective and inclusive
Why Periodisation Matters:
- It shapes how we understand the past and our identity
- Wrong periodisation can create communal divisions and misunderstandings
- Students should think critically about how history is divided and by whom
- No periodisation is perfect, but some are more useful and fair than others
Key Point: The way we divide history into periods is a choice, not a fact. British periodisation (Hindu-Muslim-British) was based on religion of rulers and carried colonial bias. Modern historians use economic and social criteria instead.
Exam Tip
James Mill divided Indian history into Hindu, Muslim, and British periods in his book 'A History of British India' (1817). This is problematic because it is religion-based, over-simplified, and carries colonial bias. Modern historians prefer periodisation based on economic and social changes.
Common Mistake
Students sometimes accept the Hindu-Muslim-British periodisation without questioning it. Remember: this division was created by a British historian to justify colonial rule. Diverse communities existed in all periods, and rulers' religion did not define the entire era.
Archives, Chronologies, and the Study of the Past
Studying a thousand years of history requires careful attention to dates, timelines, and how historical records are organised and preserved.
Chronology and Dates:
- Historians use dates to organise events into a sequence (chronological order)
- For this period, dates are given in CE (Common Era) or AD (Anno Domini)
- Key date ranges: 8th century = 700s, 12th century = 1100s, 18th century = 1700s
- Students should be able to convert between centuries and years (e.g., 13th century = 1200-1299 CE)
Archives and Libraries:
- Medieval rulers and wealthy individuals maintained libraries to preserve manuscripts
- The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal courts had large libraries with thousands of manuscripts
- Temples and monasteries also preserved texts on religion, philosophy, and science
- Many manuscripts were lost to fire, invasion, neglect, or decay over centuries
How Historians Work:
- Primary sources: Original documents, inscriptions, coins, buildings from the period being studied
- Secondary sources: Books and articles written by later historians analysing primary sources
- Cross-referencing: Historians compare information from multiple sources to verify facts
- Critical analysis: They consider who wrote the source, for whom, and why -- to identify possible bias
The Pace of Change:
- Change did not happen uniformly across the subcontinent or across all aspects of life
- Some changes happened rapidly (like political conquests), while others were gradual (like changes in language or religion)
- Different regions experienced different kinds of changes at different times
- Continuity and change coexisted -- even as new things emerged, many old practices continued
Exam Tip: Be clear about century-year conversion: 8th century = 700-799 CE. Understand the difference between primary and secondary sources. Remember that change was uneven -- rapid in some areas, slow in others.
Exam Tip
Century-year conversion is frequently tested: 8th century = 700s CE, 13th century = 1200s CE. Primary sources are original documents from the period; secondary sources are later analyses. Change was uneven across regions and aspects of life.
Common Mistake
Students often confuse centuries with years: the 8th century does NOT start in 800 CE, it starts in 700 CE (years 700-799). Also, do not assume all parts of the subcontinent changed at the same pace.