Kings and Kingdoms — Class 7 Social Science

By the seventh century, many new dynasties emerged across the Indian subcontinent. The key to this transformation was the rise of samantas — big landlords and warrior chiefs who initially served under existing kings.

Who were Samantas?

• Role: Samantas were subordinates who attended the royal court, gave gifts to their overlords, and provided military support when called upon
• Rise to power: As samantas gained wealth and military strength, they declared independence from their overlords
• Titles: Powerful samantas assumed titles like maha-samanta (great lord) and maha-mandaleshvara (great lord of a circle or province)

Key Examples of New Dynasties:

• Rashtrakutas: Initially subordinates of the Chalukyas of Karnataka. Their chief Dantidurga overthrew the Chalukya overlord and performed the Hiranyagarbha ritual — a grand ceremony that symbolised rebirth as a Kshatriya (warrior) king
• Kadamba Mayurasharman: A Brahmana who rose to become a king through military success, showing that social boundaries could be crossed
• Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra: Another Brahmana who established a royal dynasty through warfare and military achievement

Significance of the Hiranyagarbha Ritual:

• It was a special ritual performed to legitimise the claim of a non-Kshatriya ruler to kingship
• The ritual symbolised a "second birth" as a Kshatriya, giving the ruler divine sanction
• Brahmanas who performed the ritual received generous gifts and land grants in return

Medieval Indian kings developed elaborate systems of governance. They used grand titles and shared power with multiple groups in society.

Royal Titles:

• Maharaja-adhiraja: Great king of kings — used to show supremacy over other rulers
• Tribhuvana-chakravartin: Lord of the three worlds — a title claiming universal sovereignty
• Triloka-maheshvara: Lord of the three worlds

Sharing of Power:

Unlike a single all-powerful ruler, medieval kings shared power with several groups:

• Samantas: Subordinate lords who controlled their own regions
• Peasants: The backbone of the economy, providing agricultural revenue
• Brahmanas: Provided religious legitimacy and administrative support
• Traders: Contributed to the economy through commerce and paid taxes

Revenue and Taxation:

• Revenue was often called "rent" and was collected from peasants, artisans, cattle-keepers, and traders
• Chola inscriptions mention as many as 400 types of taxes
• Vetti: A tax paid through forced labour (not in cash or kind) — peasants had to work for free on royal projects
• Kadamai: Land revenue paid in cash or kind — the primary source of royal income

Two important features of medieval Indian kingdoms were land grants to Brahmanas and the composition of prashastis (praise inscriptions) to glorify rulers.

Land Grants:

• Kings gave large areas of land to Brahmanas as gifts, often tax-free
• These grants were recorded on copper plates so they served as permanent legal documents
• The land given to Brahmanas was called Brahmadeya
• Purpose: To gain religious merit, legitimise rule, and ensure Brahmana support for the kingdom
• Brahmanas who received land often became powerful local figures, managing villages and settlements

Prashastis (Praise Inscriptions):

• Definition: Prashastis were Sanskrit compositions praising the achievements and qualities of rulers
• They were composed by court poets and scholars (often Brahmanas) to glorify the king
• Prashastis often exaggerated the king's achievements, making them appear more powerful than they actually were
• Example: The prashasti of Nagabhata (Gurjara-Pratihara ruler) claims he defeated several regional rulers as well as the Turks
• Despite exaggeration, prashastis are valuable historical sources because they provide information about dynasties, their genealogies, and political events

Why Prashastis were Important:

• They legitimised the king's rule by linking him to divine or heroic ancestry
• They served as propaganda, impressing subjects and rival kings
• They recorded administrative and military achievements for posterity

Medieval Indian kingdoms frequently waged war to gain control over wealthy and strategically important regions. Wealth from temples and prosperous cities attracted both Indian and foreign invaders.

The Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj:

• Kanauj (in present-day Uttar Pradesh) was one of the richest and most prestigious cities in northern India
• Three powerful dynasties fought for control of Kanauj for nearly two centuries:
  • Gurjara-Pratiharas: Based in western India and Rajasthan
  • Rashtrakutas: Based in the Deccan (present-day Maharashtra-Karnataka)
  • Palas: Based in Bengal and Bihar
• This prolonged conflict is known as the Tripartite Struggle (three-way battle)
• The struggle weakened all three dynasties, making northern India vulnerable to external invasions

Mahmud of Ghazni (1000–1025 CE):

• Sultan from Afghanistan who raided India 17 times between 1000 and 1025 CE
• He targeted wealthy temples and cities, looting enormous amounts of gold, silver, and precious gems
• Most famous raid: Attack on the Somnath temple (Gujarat) in 1025 CE
• Used the looted wealth to build a magnificent capital at Ghazni in Afghanistan
• His raids were motivated by plunder, not permanent conquest of Indian territory

The Chahamanas (Chauhans) and Prithviraja III:

• The Chahamanas (also called Chauhans) ruled the Delhi-Ajmer region
• Most famous ruler: Prithviraja III (Prithviraj Chauhan)
• First Battle of Tarain (1191): Prithviraja III defeated Muhammad of Ghor (Ghori)
• Second Battle of Tarain (1192): Muhammad of Ghor returned with a larger army and defeated Prithviraja III
• This defeat opened the way for the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate

The Chola dynasty was one of the most powerful and long-lasting kingdoms of South India. They rose from the fertile Kaveri delta region (present-day Tamil Nadu) and built a vast empire.

Rise of the Cholas:

• Vijayalaya: The founder of Chola power; captured the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar chiefs in the mid-9th century
• He built the city of Thanjavur (Tanjore) and constructed a temple dedicated to goddess Nishumbhasudini there
• Rajaraja I (985–1014 CE): One of the greatest Chola rulers; expanded the empire to include large parts of Sri Lanka and the Maldives
• Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE): Son of Rajaraja I; extended the empire further north to the Ganga valley and led a naval expedition to Southeast Asia
• Rajendra I took the title Gangaikondachola (the Chola who conquered the Ganga) and built a new capital called Gangaikondacholapuram

Splendid Temples:

• The Cholas were renowned temple builders. Their temples were not just religious places but centres of economic and social activity
• Brihadeshvara Temple, Thanjavur: Built by Rajaraja I; one of the largest and grandest temples of its time; a UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Gangaikondacholapuram Temple: Built by Rajendra I at his new capital
• Temples served as:
  • Religious centres: Worship, rituals, and festivals
  • Economic hubs: Craft production and trade; temples owned large amounts of land
  • Centres of power: Supported by royal land grants, they became wealthy institutions

Bronze Sculptures:

• The Chola period is famous for its exquisite bronze sculptures
• The most famous is the Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of Dance) — considered one of the finest examples of Indian art
• These bronzes were made using the lost-wax technique (cire perdue), showing advanced metallurgical skills

Agriculture was the backbone of the Chola economy. The fertile Kaveri delta provided ideal conditions for rice cultivation, and the Cholas invested heavily in irrigation infrastructure.

The Kaveri Delta:

• The Kaveri river delta was one of the most fertile regions in South India
• It was ideal for rice cultivation, which was the staple crop
• To expand agriculture, forests were cleared and land was levelled for farming
• The region came to be known as the "garden of southern India" due to its productivity

Irrigation Techniques:

• Wells: Dug to access groundwater for irrigation, especially in areas away from rivers
• Tanks: Artificial reservoirs built to store rainwater for dry seasons
• Canals: Channels built to divert river water to agricultural fields over long distances

Community Effort in Irrigation:

• Building and maintaining irrigation works required careful planning and collective community effort
• Village assemblies played a key role in organising and maintaining irrigation systems
• Large-scale irrigation projects were supported by the king and local administration
• Efficient irrigation led to surplus food production, supporting the growth of cities and temples

The Chola administration is remarkable for its well-organised system of local self-governance. Village assemblies had significant power and managed daily affairs with detailed rules and procedures.

Key Administrative Units:

• Ur: Village assembly of ordinary peasants; handled local administration including taxes, justice, and irrigation
• Nadu: A group of villages that formed a larger administrative unit
• Sabha: Assembly of Brahmana landholders in Brahmadeya (Brahmana settlement) villages; had elaborate rules for functioning
• Nagaram: Assemblies of traders and merchants who managed town administration and trade-related matters

Functioning of the Sabha (from Uttaramerur Inscriptions):

• Members of the sabha were selected through a lottery system (not elected) — names of eligible candidates were written on palm leaves and drawn randomly
• Separate committees were formed for different functions such as managing gardens, tanks, irrigation, and temple affairs
• There were strict eligibility criteria for membership, including land ownership and age requirements
• The Uttaramerur inscriptions (near Chennai) provide the most detailed account of how these sabhas worked

Roles of Village Councils:

• Tax collection: Collecting revenue from peasants and forwarding it to the king
• Justice: Settling local disputes and maintaining law and order
• Irrigation management: Maintaining wells, tanks, and canals
• Temple management: Overseeing temple land and religious activities

Rich Peasants and Titles:

• Wealthy and influential peasants were given special titles like muvendavelan (a title connecting them to the three Tamil kings)
• These titled peasants held positions of prestige and influence in local administration

Brahmana settlements were an important feature of the Chola kingdom. The land was classified into several categories, each serving a different purpose. Literary works provide glimpses into everyday life during this period.

Brahmana Settlements (Brahmadeya):

• Brahmadeya was land gifted to Brahmanas by the king, often tax-free
• These settlements were governed by sabhas (Brahmana assemblies)
• Sabhas managed the affairs of the settlement including land management, dispute resolution, and temple administration
• Brahmadeya villages became centres of learning, religion, and local administration

Land Categories in Chola Inscriptions:

• Vellanvagai: Land owned by non-Brahmana peasant proprietors — the most common type of land
• Brahmadeya: Land gifted to Brahmanas — often tax-free and hereditary
• Shalabhoga: Land set aside for the maintenance of schools — income used for educational purposes
• Devadana / Tirunamattukkani: Land gifted to temples — income used for temple maintenance and rituals
• Pallichchhandam: Land donated to Jain institutions — used for the upkeep of Jain monasteries

Everyday Life: Glimpses from Literature:

• The Periyapuranam (a 12th-century Tamil literary text) provides vivid descriptions of everyday life during the Chola period
• It describes the life of Pulaiyas (considered outcastes) — showing the social hierarchies and caste divisions of the time
• The text gives details about village life, occupations, daily routines, and social customs
• Through such literature, we learn about the lives of ordinary people beyond what official inscriptions record