Eighteenth-Century Political Formations — Class 7 Social Science

The Mughal Empire began to decline rapidly after the death of Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707. Aurangzeb was the last powerful Mughal ruler, and after him, a series of weak emperors came to the throne.

Key factors that weakened the empire:

• Weak successors: Emperors after Aurangzeb lacked the ability and vision to hold the vast empire together
• Financial crisis: Constant wars had emptied the treasury; the state could no longer pay its officials and armies properly
• Poor administration: Central authority broke down as provinces became difficult to control from Delhi
• Deccan wars: Aurangzeb spent 25 years fighting long and costly wars in the Deccan, which drained the empire's military and financial resources

Later Mughals:

• After 1707, Mughal emperors became weak puppets controlled by powerful nobles and factions at court
• Some emperors were assassinated or blinded by ambitious nobles who wanted to control the throne
• The emperor's authority was limited to Delhi and its surroundings; real power lay with provincial governors

Several interrelated factors contributed to the decline of the mighty Mughal Empire:

1. Mansabdars and Subadars became independent:

• Mansabdars (military commanders holding ranks) stopped obeying orders from the emperor
• Subadars (provincial governors) began to act as independent rulers in their provinces
• They kept revenue for themselves instead of sending it to Delhi
• Many founded their own dynasties in the provinces they governed

2. Peasant and Zamindar Rebellions:

• Heavy taxation and exploitation drove peasants and zamindars to revolt
• Rebellions disrupted revenue collection and weakened Mughal control over the countryside
• Local chiefs took advantage of the unrest to carve out their own territories

3. Foreign Invasions:

• Nadir Shah's Invasion (1739): The Persian ruler Nadir Shah invaded India and sacked Delhi. He looted immense wealth, including the famous Peacock Throne and the Koh-i-Noor diamond. This invasion exposed the complete military weakness of the Mughals.
• Ahmad Shah Abdali (1748-1761): The Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India multiple times, causing destruction in northern India. His invasions further destabilised the already weakened Mughal Empire.

As Mughal authority weakened, several regional powers emerged as powerful independent states. The most prominent among them were Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad.

Awadh:

• Founded by Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk, who was appointed subadar of Awadh
• He reduced the number of Mughal-appointed officials and replaced them with his own men
• Revenue was kept locally instead of being sent to Delhi
• Awadh became a prosperous and culturally rich state with its capital at Lucknow

Bengal:

• Murshid Quli Khan established an independent state in Bengal
• He transferred all Mughal appointees and created a loyal administration
• Bengal became one of the wealthiest provinces due to its control over trade and agriculture
• The rich resources of Bengal later attracted the British East India Company

Hyderabad:

• Founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724
• He was a powerful Mughal official who became independent in the Deccan
• Hyderabad became the most powerful state in the Deccan region
• The Nizam ruled independently, though he technically owed allegiance to the Mughal emperor

Common features of these states:

• All were founded by former Mughal governors who became independent
• They maintained Mughal administrative systems but kept revenues for themselves
• They appointed their own officials and maintained their own armies
• They continued to acknowledge the Mughal emperor nominally but were practically independent

The Rajput kingdoms took advantage of Mughal decline to expand their territories and assert their independence.

Key Rajput Rulers:

• Raja Jai Singh of Amber: One of the most powerful Rajput rulers of this period. He founded the city of Jaipur in 1727, which became a major centre of art, architecture, and learning. Jai Singh was also a noted astronomer who built observatories (Jantar Mantar) in Delhi, Jaipur, Varanasi, Ujjain, and Mathura.
• Ajit Singh of Jodhpur (Marwar): Reclaimed his father's kingdom of Marwar from Mughal control and expanded Rajput territories. He asserted Rajput independence against weak Mughal authority.

Rajput Achievements:

• Built strong forts to defend their kingdoms from invasion
• Founded new capitals such as Jaipur, which was a planned city with wide roads and beautiful architecture
• Expanded their territories by taking over areas previously under Mughal control
• Maintained their distinct cultural identity while participating in the political changes of the time

The Sikhs emerged as a major political and military power in Punjab during the eighteenth century. Their rise was one of the most remarkable political developments of this period.

Political Organisation:

• Jathas: Small bands of Sikh warriors who organised themselves for defence and governance
• Misls: Larger military confederacies formed by combining several jathas. There were about 12 misls that controlled different parts of Punjab.
• Khalsa: The Sikh community of warrior-saints founded by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699. The Khalsa provided the ideological and military framework for Sikh political power.

The Rakhi System:

• The Sikhs introduced the rakhi system to provide protection to peasants
• In exchange for a small portion of the revenue, Sikh warriors offered protection from invaders and oppressors
• This system helped the Sikhs gain the support and loyalty of the agricultural population

Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780-1839):

• United the different Sikh misls into a single powerful kingdom
• Made Lahore the capital of the Sikh Empire
• Built one of the most powerful armies in Asia, trained on European lines
• His kingdom extended from the Sutlej River to the Khyber Pass
• Known for his secular approach; employed people from different religions in his administration and army

The Marathas were the most powerful regional force to emerge from the decline of the Mughal Empire. They nearly succeeded in establishing control over much of India.

Foundation by Shivaji Maharaj:

• Shivaji (1627-1680) founded the Maratha kingdom in the Deccan region
• He carved out an independent kingdom by challenging both the Mughals and the Bijapur Sultanate
• He established a strong military and administrative system
• Shivaji was crowned Chhatrapati (sovereign ruler) in 1674

Role of the Peshwas:

• After Shivaji, the Peshwas (prime ministers) became the real power behind the Maratha state
• The Peshwas were based in Pune and controlled the administration effectively
• Under the Peshwas, the Marathas expanded their territory far beyond the Deccan
• Key Peshwas included Balaji Vishwanath, Baji Rao I, and Balaji Baji Rao

Revenue Systems:

• Chauth: One-fourth (25%) of the land revenue collected by Marathas from territories they did not directly rule. This was a form of protection tax - states paid chauth so the Marathas would not attack them.
• Sardeshmukhi: An additional 10% levy claimed by the Marathas as the hereditary revenue collectors (deshmukhs) of the region. This gave them additional income and political authority.

Maratha Expansion:

• By the mid-18th century, the Marathas controlled large areas of India including parts of Delhi, Gujarat, Malwa, and southern India
• They became the most powerful military force in India after Mughal decline
• Maratha power reached its peak under Peshwa Baji Rao I (1720-1740)

Third Battle of Panipat (1761):

• The Marathas suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761
• Thousands of Maratha soldiers and leaders were killed
• This battle ended Maratha hopes of replacing the Mughals as rulers of all India
• After this defeat, the Maratha Confederacy became fragmented into smaller states

The Jats were another important regional power that rose during the eighteenth century, particularly in the area around Delhi and Agra.

Key Jat Leaders:

• Churaman: One of the earliest Jat leaders who organised the community for armed resistance and political power
• Suraj Mal: The most famous Jat ruler who expanded the Jat kingdom significantly. He captured Agra and other important territories. Under his leadership, the Jat state reached its greatest extent.

Bharatpur:

• Bharatpur emerged as the capital and stronghold of the Jat state
• The Jats built a powerful fort at Bharatpur that was considered nearly impregnable
• Even the British later found it very difficult to capture Bharatpur fort

Characteristics of the Jat Kingdom:

• Prosperous agriculturists: The Jats were primarily farming communities who used their agricultural wealth to build political and military power
• Skilled fort builders: They constructed impressive fortifications that protected their territories
• They controlled important trade routes near Delhi and Agra
• Their state was smaller than the Maratha or Sikh kingdoms but was powerful in its region

Political Fragmentation and Its Consequences:

• The eighteenth century saw India break up into many small and medium-sized states
• These states often fought among themselves instead of uniting against common threats
• No single power was strong enough to replace the Mughals and unite India
• This political fragmentation made India vulnerable to British expansion
• The British East India Company took advantage of rivalries between Indian states to gradually conquer the subcontinent